The Future Of Your PC's Hardware:Memristor

Since the dawn of electronics, we've had only three types of circuit components--resistors,inductors & capacitors.But in 1971, UC Berkeley researcher Leon Chua theorized the possibility of a fourth type of component,one that would be able to measure the flow of electric current: the Memristor. Now, just 37 years later, Hewlett-Packard has built one.

What Is It?

As its name implies,the memristor can "remember" how much current has passed through it.And by alternating the amount of current that passes through it,a memristor can also become a one-element circuit component with unique properties.Most notably,it can save its electronic state even when the current is turned off,making it a great candidate to replace today's flash memory.

Memristor will theoretically be cheaper & far faster than flash memory & allow far greater memory densities.They could also replace RAM chips as we know them,so that,after you turn off your computer,it will remember exactly what it was doing when you turn it back on & return to work instantly.This lowering of cost & consolidating of components may lead to affordable,solid state computes that fit in your pocket & run many times faster than today's PC's. 

Someday the memristor could spawn a whole new type of computer,thanks to its ability to remember a range of electrical states rather than the simplistic "on"&"off" states that today's digital processors recognize.By working with a dynamic range of data states in an analog mode,memristor-based computers could be capable of far more complex tasks than just shuttling ones and zeroes around

When is it coming?

Researchers say that no real barrier prevents implementing the memristor in circuitry immediately. But it's up to the business side to push products through to commercial reality.Memristors made to replace flash memory (at a lower cost and lower power consumption) will likely appear first; HP's goal is to offer them by 2012.Beyond that, memristors will likely replace both DRAM  & Hard Disks in the 2014-to-2016 time frame As for memristor-based analog computers, that step may take 20-plus years.

Nanotechnology In Agriculture

Nanotechnology is science of manipulating materials at nano-scale. Among the latest technological advancements, nanotechnology occupies a central position. It has many applications in all stages of production, processing, storing, packaging and transport of agricultural products. The reduced use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers with increased efficiency, controlled release and targeted delivery will lead to precision farming. Dream of automated, centrally controlled agriculture can become reality now. Modern agriculture is need of hour because conventional agricultural will not be able to feed an ever increasing population with changing climate, depleting resources and shrinking landscape. But at the same time application of nano-materials in agri-food sector has to be evaluated for public acceptance.

Thanks to nanotechnology that the future food will be designed according to consumer’s choice with a better taste, texture, nutrient contents and a longer shelf life. It can offer compelling value and prove to be the "the next big thing" in future agriculture. The food will be wrapped in “smart” safety packaging that can detect contaminants and spoilage agents.Nanotechnology is a novel, innovative, interdisciplinary scientific approach that involves designing, development and application of materials & devices at molecular level in nanometre scale i.e. at least one dimension ranges in size from 1 to 100 nanometres,a billionth of meter. Graph 1 indicates an exponential increase in research publications in field of nanotechnology.The use of nanotechnology in agriculture is getting importance because it is possible advantages vary from enhanced food values, reduced agricultural inputs, improved nutrient contents and longer shelf life.For developing countries, agriculture sector is backbone of their economy including more than 60% of the population which depends upon agriculture to earn their livelihood directly or indirectly.Among the latest line of technological innovations in the field of agriculture, nanotechnology occupies a distinguished position in remodelling agriculture and food production to fulfill the demands in an efficient and cost-effective way.

Nano-pesticide

Plant pests are major factors in limiting crop yields. Conventional pest controlling methods include the use of over-the-counter pesticides in large quantity which consequently add an additional cost in crop production. Excess amount of pesticides also cause environmental and water pollution. There is a need to use as much as minimum amount of pesticides to save the environment and reduce the cost in crop production.It can be achieved by increasing the retention time of pesticides with required efficiency. Persistence of pesticides in the initial stage of crop growth helps in bringing down the pest population below the threshold level, leading to an effective control for a longer period of time.

Disinfectants

It is estimated that 30 to 40% of the food produced on earth goes to waste before it can be consumed. The situation is even worse in case of fruits and vegetables. These losses can be reduced up to great extent by increasing the shelf life of perishable commodities. Nano- particles can also be used as disinfectants in food packaging and food engineering to increase the shelf life of food product.

Nano Lamination

Other significant factors include moisture, gases and lipids accumulation that cause the food to be perished. To protect the food from these agents, another workable option is nano-lamination. Nano-lamination is applied by coating foods with nanolaminates or simply by spraying it on the food surface. Along with preservation of food they can improve the texture, preserve flavour and colour of the food. Nanolaminates are thin, harmless food grade protective films which are prepared from edible polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids.

In agriculture sector, Nanotechnology has phenomenal potential to facilitate and frame the next stage of precision farming techniques. It will increase agricultural potential to harvest higher yields in ecofriendly way even in challenging environment. Globally many countries have recognized the potential of nanotechnology in the agri-food sector and are investing a significant amount on it. The adoption of nanotechnology would play a crucial role to feed the ever increasing population with declining natural resources.Extensive studies are required to understand the mechanism for nano-materials toxicity and their impacts on natural environment. If we overcome these considerations, the bright and beneficial future is at doorstep of developing nations.

Eye Phone

Smartphone Connected Contact Lenses Give New Meaning To "EYE PHONE"

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Logistic Exchange Memorandum of Agreement(LEMOA)

Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar and US Defence Secretary Ashton Carter signed the pact during Parrikar’s 4-day visit.In a significant decision that could have for reaching implications for India's military posture,India and the US have agreed "in principle" on logistics support agreement.That would make it easier for both militaries to share each other facilities.The Logistic Exchange Memorandum of Agreement(LEMOA) was the highlight of U.S Defence Secretary Ash Carter's three day.

What is LEMOA?

Logistic Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) facilitates the provision of logistical support, supplies, and services between the US and Indian militaries on a refundable basis, and provides a framework to govern them.It significantly enhances operational capacity of our armed forces, including in response to humanitarian crises or disaster relief.It would help both countries in governing the use of each other's land,air and naval bases for repair and resupply, a step toward building defence ties as they seek to counter the growing maritime assertiveness of China. 

What does LEMOA Cover?

LEMOA facilitates support between India and USA and this may include food, water, billeting, transportation, petroleum, oils, lubricants, clothing, medical services, spare parts and components, repair and maintenance services, training services, and other logistical items and services.

How does this Agreement work?

For example, during a bilateral exercise with the US, the participant country's unit requires fuel for its equipment.The unit cannot make the purchase unless it can pay directly and immediately. A LEMOA agreement allows for the purchase by establishing a value for the purchase and the terms for payment, which could be replacement-in-kind or an equal-value exchange.

No bases to be set-up in India

The defence pact signed by India and the US facilitating logistical support between the two militaries is not an agreement to set up bases, Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar and his US counterpart Ashton Carter have said."There is no provision for any base or any sort of activities to set up a base in India," Parrikar told reporters at a joint news conference with Carter after the two leaders held talks at the Pentagon.

The importance of this pact?

Both Parrikar and Carter have agreed on the importance (that) this framework will provide to facilitate innovative and advanced opportunities in defence technology and trade cooperation.Welcoming the signing of the bilateral agreement, defence minister Manohar Parrikar and US defence secretary Ashton Carter said the pact will facilitate opportunities for "practical engagement and exchange".

Automation In Manufacturing System

Manufacturing Automation is a key technology necessary for improving the quality and quantity of manufactured products.This technology is specially important in developing countries due to the shortage of skilled workers in those countries.Several automatic techniques are available for detecting faults in different machine components and locating the immediate faulty areas.Computer Numerical Control(CNC)machines,robots,surface milling machines,lathes and compressors are among hundreds of widely used machines in manufacturing.Every one of these tools is designed with the idea of repetition in mind.On an assembly line,each component repeats a task over and over again,most of the time without a break.The cost associated with manufacturing a piece is multiplied by hundreds and thousand of pieces manufactured at site.These pieces could be related to automobiles,refrigerators,toys,pharmaceuticals,clothing,computers etc.Precision has found more and more demand everyday for the past decade.Due to great amounts of competition in the line of manufacturing,unlike the past,only companies with the best products survive.

Due to the repetitive nature of manufacturing,most people working in these sites become more and more valuable for the creation of their product.This is due to the fact that they gain experience and their productivity increases with their experience.Unfortunately, one cannot say the same thing about most machines on the assembly line.They start wearing out and they hardly learn anything from their past experiences.In an optimal manufacturing process,it is desirable for the system to learn and improve its performance with experience.It is also desirable that any components of the system which are no longer performing optimally should be found and reported to the human supervisor in an automatic manner so that they could be replaced with a new piece.

Controls In Manufacturing

A wide class of controllers in this employ predefined gains and do not take into consideration the nonlinear dynamics in these machines. [1, 2] These gains are based on linear approximations of these highly nonlinear systems and are tuned to different tasks manually.These tuning jobs usually take hours and sometimes days and during this time the machines are not operable.The result is that these machines are not utilized to their full potential in terms of speed and precision.With a more sophisticated control strategy,it is possible to compensate for the complicated effects of nonlinearities which have in the past been considered as disturbances in most systems.Two classes of newly developed control systems which are mostly geared toward manufacturing applications are called Repetitive and Learning control systems.A repetitive controller [15, 16] is designed for processes which operate in cycles.Repetitive controllers assume that there is continuity between the last point of a repetition and the first point of the next repetition.In Learning Controllers the initial conditions are reset to the same value at each repetition.The Learning Self-tuning Regulator has also shown both in computer simulations and in experimental setups to be highly robust and to reduce the total error of systems by considerable amounts.

Another important need of manufacturing systems is to be able to monitor different components automatically.Lots of research has been done in this area in the past decade.The health of components such as bearings could be monitored by placing inexpensive accelerometer on the body of the machine.Similar type of research has been done for monitoring compressors which could seriously malfunction and blow up in cases.Automatic monitoring systems could shut these systems down before they could cause any danger.In such cases,lives might be saved using these automatic monitors.

Using these new technologies in control and monitoring of manufacturing processes could be very practical and valuable.Using these techniques,better quality products could be manufactured in addition to the increased speeds of production.The down-time of manufacturing processes is reduced extensively using condition monitoring techniques and the expertise of human workers could be used in much more useful ways.Perfect integration of the above techniques could amount to an optimal manufacturing process. 

PHOTOVOLTAIC

Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process that occurs naturally in certain types of material, called semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are freed by solar energy and can be induced to travel through an electrical circuit, powering electrical devices or sending electricity to the grid.PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial businesses.

How does PV technology work?
Photons strike and ionize semiconductor material on the solar panel, causing outer electrons to break free of their atomic bonds. Due to the semiconductor structure, the electrons are forced in one direction creating a flow of electrical current.Solar cells are not 100% efficient in Diagram of a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. Solar cells are not 100% efficient in part because some of the light spectrum is reflected, some is too weak to create electricity (infrared) and some (ultraviolet) creates heat energy instead of electricity.

Others types of Photovoltaic Technology
Thin Film PV is a fast-growing but small part of the commercial solar market. Many thin-film firms are start-ups developing experimental technologies. They are generally less efficient but often cheaper than c-Si modules. 
In the United States, concentrating PV arrays are found primarily in the desert Southwest. They use lenses and mirrors to reflect concentrated solar energy onto high-efficiency cells. They require direct sunlight and tracking systems to be most effective 
History of Photovoltaic Technology
The PV effect was observed as early as 1839 by Alexandre Edmund Becquerel, and was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early twentieth century. In 1954, Bell Labs in the U.S. introduced the first solar PV device that produced a useable amount of electricity, and by 1958, solar cells were being used in a variety of small-scale scientific and commercial applications.The energy crisis of the 1970s saw the beginning of major interest in using solar cells to produce electricity in homes and businesses, but prohibitive prices (nearly 30 times higher than the current price) made large-scale applications impractical.Industry developments and research in the following years made PV devices more feasible and a cycle of increasing production and decreasing costs began which continues even today.

Most modern solar cells are made from either crystalline silicon or thin-film semiconductor material. Silicon cells are more efficient at converting sunlight to electricity, but generally have higher manufacturing costs. Thin-film materials typically have lower efficiencies, but can be simpler and less costly to manufacture. A specialized category of solar cells - called multi-junction or tandem cells - are used in applications requiring very low weight and very high efficiencies, such as satellites and military applications. All types of PV systems are widely used today in a variety of applications.
 In most parts of India sunlight and wind is available in abundance for generating energy. While solar energy generation is quite predictable and will occur only during the daylight hours, wind energy is location specific. Complementing solar and wind energy with batteries and diesel generators will ensure uninterrupted supply of power. All our systems are designed to maximize the use of renewable energy thereby reducing dependence on fossil fuels.

Google's Loon

Project Loon is research and development project being developed by Google with mission of providing Internet access to rural & remote areas.The project uses high altitude balloons placed in the stratosphere at an altitude of about 32 Km to create an aerial wireless network using a special internet antenna attached to their building.The signal travels through the balloon to balloon then ground based station connected to Internet Service Provider(ISP),then onto the global Internet.The system aims to bring Internet access to remote & rural areas poorly served by existing provisions & to improve communication during natural disasters to affected regions.

The technology designed in the project could allow countries to avoid using expensive fiber cable that would have to be installed underground to allow users to connect to the internet.Google feels this will greatly increase internet usage in developing countries in regions such as Africa & Southeast Asia that can't afford to lay underground fiber cable.Project Loon balloons positioned in the stratosphere wind at an altitude of about 20 Km,twice as high as airplane flights & weather changes.It is situated on the edge of space between 10 Km & 60 Km in altitude having steady wind below 20 mph.This spherical layer is great for solar panels because there are no clouds to block the sun.

Each balloon has a radio antenna that provide constant connectivity to the ground and connects each balloon to other balloon.There is special ground antenna that is installed on the home or workplace to access the internet from balloon.Google claims that each balloon can provide signal connectivity to ground area about 40 Km in diameter & able to deliver 3G comparable speeds.These antenna uses ISM bands of spectrum 2.4 GHz & 5.8 GHz.

There are two types of communications:1.Balloon to Balloon Communication.

                                                            2.Balloon to Ground Communication.

In loon design there are three main components

1.Envelope:The inflatable part of the balloon is called Envelope.Each super pressure balloon is made of polyethylene plastic material & filled with helium.When fully inflated the balloon height is 12 m & it's width is 15 m.The envelope is designed to resistant exposure to UV rays & is capable to function at dramatic temperature swing as low as -80 degree celsius. 

2.Solar Panel:Each balloon's solar panel provide power to it's own electronics.The solar panel's mounted at a steep angle to effectively capture sunlight.The panel produce approximately 100 watts of power in full sun & additional power is stored in rechargeable batteries.

3.Electronics:A small electronic box hangs underneath the inflated envelope.This box contains circuit boards,Linux based computer,radio antenna,GPS sensors & batteries.They have specific function.circuit boards to control the system,radio antenna for communication,GPS for tracking location,sensors to monitor and record weather conditions & lithium ions batteries to store solar panel.

Internet connectivity & communication become one of the basic needs in modern human daily life.An innovative idea like the Google's Project Loon would aid & benefit remote area of the world.It would also provide backbone communication during & after natural disaster when ground infrastructure is destroyed.